Friday, December 7, 2012
Chapter 13
The fifteenth century was beholden to a great number of
amazing feats by humans. One thing that many people associate with the 15th
century is the discovery, or rediscovery of America. However, in other parts of
the world other things were going on in places like China and Europe. One such
thing was the Chinese captain Zhen He who pretty much established Chinese naval
presence. However the huge navy of China was soon recalled never to muster up
the strength it once had. In North America agricultural villages avoided
becoming huge empires like those in Europe and Asia. For some reason they
seemed to prefer the life of farming. It is an admirable choice seeing as how
most empires end in violent struggles. An important presence that started to
take hold again in Asia and Europe were the pastoral Mongols. Unlike the Americans,
the Mongols went from a simple lifestyle to a huge empire. Under the Mongols,
the pastoral peoples finally had a chance to rule the land in which they were
settling instead of other, large empires who only had cities and looked to
conquering other peoples. In fact, the Mongol Empire was to become the largest
land based empire in history taking up space from Pacific Asia to Eastern
Europe during it’s time under Chinggis Khan. However in the 14th and
15th century a new Mongol Empire began to take hold under Timur. His
ferocity matched that of the former more famous leader however his campaign was
short lived because of his death. Besides the nomadic and agricultural peoples
who lived during the time around the 15th century there were also
the empires that already existed in Europe and Asia. In China, the reign of the
Ming Dynasty was taking place. For centuries China had trouble coping with
things like Mongol rule and the plague that killed huge amounts of people.
However, during the Ming Dynasty China started to recover and recuperate. They
brought back the civil service exam system and put together the largest sea expedition
the world had ever seen at that point. The sea firepower of the Chinese vastly
outnumbered and outperformed anything the Europeans could put out. Along with a
huge navy came the vast possibilities of exploration and trade to places that
were considered unreachable before. The Ming Dynasty was arguably the most
prosperous and best-governed society in the world at the time and perhaps one
of the best led of all time. However, all of this came to an end with the end
of the Ming Dynasty because the next rulers saw the maritime expeditions as a
waste of time and effort. In Europe, civilizations were just beginning to
recover from the plague. Having also been devastated by Mongol rule and the
plague, however the plague was much more devastating in Europe than it was in
Asia so there was a lot more work to be done. Along with Columbus, there were
also other explorers for Europe including Vasco da Gama who sailed around the
tip of Africa and to southern India. Overall, the vast recovery all over Europe
and Asia made for a better world.
Monday, November 5, 2012
Connecting through the past
The most important thing I thought in chapter 9 was the that exchange between people of far away lands is not something new and has been around for centuries. In this day and age it may be easier to buy and sell things that are far away, but the trade itself is not new and I think that many people tend to forget that.
Chapter 9 divides the routes of trade into four different areas: Ground travel in Eurasia through the Silk Roads, transport over sea on the Indian Ocean, shipping across sand in the Sahara, and commerce in the Americas.The four different areas of trade all brought goods to different places but they also had more impacts than just trade. For example, the natural resources in one area could lead to a monopoly of a certain good by one country like China had of silk. This in turn encourages specialization of products to ship off to distant lands. Trade also changed consumption of regions because people were able to obtain goods that were foreign to their countries. It also brought up the question of taxing trade to make money, and what social group the traders would be placed in as they were wealthy but were not known for actually producing the goods themselves. Trading also allowed the spread of religion to different areas.
The silk road was defined as a relay trade, meaning that goods were passed between many different people before actually reaching its final destination. The silk road was more than just a trade route as it provided unity all across Eurasia because every civilization thrived on its trade and could not afford for the routes to be inactive for whatever reason. Like the silk roads, sea trade increased increased cultural and environmental changes. The transfer of foreign goods to distant places changed lives. One advantage of sea trade was that it was cheaper than silk road trading because more goods could be carried. Trade over the Sahara provided a connection between North Africa and the Mediterranean. The obvious problem that came with trading over the Sahara was the heat and desert. However, problems were effectively solved with the introduction of camels which could go for many days without water making the long voyages through the desert possible. The long distance trade over the Sahara encouraged peoples to form new cities along trade routes and many of the pastoral people were able to take advantage of it. Finally, the American network of commerce, which developed independently. Because of the distance, no trade took place between the Americas and Eurasia took place, and there were not many direct connections between American civilizations themselves. A lot of things that were developed in one region did not expand to other places. In any case, trade between distant lands has always existed, creating economic and cultural connections.
Chapter 9 divides the routes of trade into four different areas: Ground travel in Eurasia through the Silk Roads, transport over sea on the Indian Ocean, shipping across sand in the Sahara, and commerce in the Americas.The four different areas of trade all brought goods to different places but they also had more impacts than just trade. For example, the natural resources in one area could lead to a monopoly of a certain good by one country like China had of silk. This in turn encourages specialization of products to ship off to distant lands. Trade also changed consumption of regions because people were able to obtain goods that were foreign to their countries. It also brought up the question of taxing trade to make money, and what social group the traders would be placed in as they were wealthy but were not known for actually producing the goods themselves. Trading also allowed the spread of religion to different areas.
The silk road was defined as a relay trade, meaning that goods were passed between many different people before actually reaching its final destination. The silk road was more than just a trade route as it provided unity all across Eurasia because every civilization thrived on its trade and could not afford for the routes to be inactive for whatever reason. Like the silk roads, sea trade increased increased cultural and environmental changes. The transfer of foreign goods to distant places changed lives. One advantage of sea trade was that it was cheaper than silk road trading because more goods could be carried. Trade over the Sahara provided a connection between North Africa and the Mediterranean. The obvious problem that came with trading over the Sahara was the heat and desert. However, problems were effectively solved with the introduction of camels which could go for many days without water making the long voyages through the desert possible. The long distance trade over the Sahara encouraged peoples to form new cities along trade routes and many of the pastoral people were able to take advantage of it. Finally, the American network of commerce, which developed independently. Because of the distance, no trade took place between the Americas and Eurasia took place, and there were not many direct connections between American civilizations themselves. A lot of things that were developed in one region did not expand to other places. In any case, trade between distant lands has always existed, creating economic and cultural connections.
Thursday, November 1, 2012
Chapter 7: Classical era variations
When we study societies in the classical era, there tends to be a focus on Eurasian societies which is understandable because Eurasian population made up around 80 percent of the world's people for about 1600 years from 400 B.C.E to 1000 C.E. However there were other societies around during this time period and we often don't hear or learn much about them. Chapter 7 was a nice respite from eurocentric history and it talked about other civilizations that were developing around the same time.
One society in particular was the Niger River civilization in Western Africa. The society existed far from the influences of other classical era peoples and because of this, it developed a unique culture and way of life. The biggest difference was the absence of an imperial system. Despite the lack of authority, they had still had complex urban areas that operated freely without government, in essence, it was a a true free market. Another interesting thing was that archaeologists found little evidence of wars taking place or even social inequality which is something that is still a problem for us today.
Another region which was talked about was Mesoamerica. Unlike the African and Eurasian civilizations, the Mesoamerican peoples had little chance for commerce and mingling between cultures that were on the other side of the Pacific and Atlantic. This isolation allowed Mesoamerica to develop independently in a way that was not impacted by any other cultures. And because of geographical restrictions, the societies of Mesomamerica did not have much direct contact with each other. Not unsimilar to other places, the Mesoamericans had an agricultural community and had religious beliefs that focused on many deities and monuments to the gods. Human sacrifice was also a part of their religion and they even had a calendar. Mesoamerica was also home to Teotihuacan which was a huge planned city with a population between 100,000 and 200,000 which was easily the largest city in the Americas.
When we study societies in the classical era, there tends to be a focus on Eurasian societies which is understandable because Eurasian population made up around 80 percent of the world's people for about 1600 years from 400 B.C.E to 1000 C.E. However there were other societies around during this time period and we often don't hear or learn much about them. Chapter 7 was a nice respite from eurocentric history and it talked about other civilizations that were developing around the same time.
One society in particular was the Niger River civilization in Western Africa. The society existed far from the influences of other classical era peoples and because of this, it developed a unique culture and way of life. The biggest difference was the absence of an imperial system. Despite the lack of authority, they had still had complex urban areas that operated freely without government, in essence, it was a a true free market. Another interesting thing was that archaeologists found little evidence of wars taking place or even social inequality which is something that is still a problem for us today.
Another region which was talked about was Mesoamerica. Unlike the African and Eurasian civilizations, the Mesoamerican peoples had little chance for commerce and mingling between cultures that were on the other side of the Pacific and Atlantic. This isolation allowed Mesoamerica to develop independently in a way that was not impacted by any other cultures. And because of geographical restrictions, the societies of Mesomamerica did not have much direct contact with each other. Not unsimilar to other places, the Mesoamericans had an agricultural community and had religious beliefs that focused on many deities and monuments to the gods. Human sacrifice was also a part of their religion and they even had a calendar. Mesoamerica was also home to Teotihuacan which was a huge planned city with a population between 100,000 and 200,000 which was easily the largest city in the Americas.
Friday, October 26, 2012
Chapter 6: Eurasian Social Hierarchies
The story at the beginning of the chapter stood out a lot to me. It is about a 26 year old Hindu woman looking for a partner by placing personal ads. The personal ads allow (or possibly require?) a person to list themselves in what caste they are in. The fact that the caste system is referred to at all is interesting, but the fact that it still in the 21st century impacts partnerships shows a lot about how the culture is influenced by its roots.
The rest of chapter goes into details of how hierarchies worked in different Eurasian countries and that it has only been in last 250 years that slavery, women's rights, and relationships between men and women have been challenged and altered for the better of humans. Today we take things such as women's rights or abolition of slavery lightly because we never really got to see how oppressive these things were. We also feel like it's from a different time in history that does not concern us, but the truth is that it really did not happen long ago and these issues still show up today and are important.
The chapter goes on to talk about China and India and how their social systems worked. It was interesting to learn that the Chinese hierarchy was the same for over 2,000 years which to me shows how strong of a government they had. The Chinese had a system that favored families who were wealthy and could afford to send their sons to school. In India, it was what family you were born into that mattered most, and if a person in the highest caste killed someone of the lowest caste it was treated as if they had killed a dog. Both these societies offered little chance to move up in class and it seems that where you were born was the most important thing to ensure an easy life. In America we like to think that if you work hard you can move up in the world, and while that's true, it is also true that where you were born does make a difference in how hard of a life you will have. It makes a difference in how people see you, how you will be treated in school, and ultimately where you get a job. We like to think that class discrimination is a thing of the past and is extinct, and although it may not be as prominent, it exists and goes on everyday.
The story at the beginning of the chapter stood out a lot to me. It is about a 26 year old Hindu woman looking for a partner by placing personal ads. The personal ads allow (or possibly require?) a person to list themselves in what caste they are in. The fact that the caste system is referred to at all is interesting, but the fact that it still in the 21st century impacts partnerships shows a lot about how the culture is influenced by its roots.
The rest of chapter goes into details of how hierarchies worked in different Eurasian countries and that it has only been in last 250 years that slavery, women's rights, and relationships between men and women have been challenged and altered for the better of humans. Today we take things such as women's rights or abolition of slavery lightly because we never really got to see how oppressive these things were. We also feel like it's from a different time in history that does not concern us, but the truth is that it really did not happen long ago and these issues still show up today and are important.
The chapter goes on to talk about China and India and how their social systems worked. It was interesting to learn that the Chinese hierarchy was the same for over 2,000 years which to me shows how strong of a government they had. The Chinese had a system that favored families who were wealthy and could afford to send their sons to school. In India, it was what family you were born into that mattered most, and if a person in the highest caste killed someone of the lowest caste it was treated as if they had killed a dog. Both these societies offered little chance to move up in class and it seems that where you were born was the most important thing to ensure an easy life. In America we like to think that if you work hard you can move up in the world, and while that's true, it is also true that where you were born does make a difference in how hard of a life you will have. It makes a difference in how people see you, how you will be treated in school, and ultimately where you get a job. We like to think that class discrimination is a thing of the past and is extinct, and although it may not be as prominent, it exists and goes on everyday.
Friday, September 28, 2012
Chapter 3: First Civilizations
Chapter three was especially compelling as it is the first time we can see the society as we know it starting to form. For the first time there are actual states and governments with leaders who use force to get obedience. Personally, the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt were always the most interesting part of history as they provided the foundation for civilization today. It was also interesting how civilizations not only formed in one place, but 6 different places around the globe at around the same time, just like how agriculture happened. As civilization developed so did trade between peoples and also writing. Two things that generally did not happen before these 6 major civilizations suddenly appeared and became a major part of most of the societies as the literate people were often held in higher regard than those were illiterate; and trade made the possibility of getting materials a lot easier, it also helped the spread of culture. The Indus Valley civilization was interesting because they did not have a hierarchy like the other civilizations had. I think it takes a lot of intelligence to have a coordinated civilization with specialized jobs, and not have someone overseeing it all as a ruling figure. The most interesting civilizations, in my opinion, was the one in South America known as Norte Chico because, unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the other early civilizations, they did not have a form of writing. Nor did they trade much or even have wars as their cities did not have defensive structures. Most of these things were probably due to isolation, however, even isolated they were able to develop their own society, much different than the others but still functioning. Of course the more typical ancient civilizations are interesting too as Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China have done many significant things during their time. For example, the Chinese were able to create an irrigation system that left surplus all over the civilization, thus allowing them to expand and focus on advancing their civilization. Another example would be the hard work and ingenuity it took the Egyptians to build the pyramids which we still see today as a huge accomplishment. Of course there was also the Mesopotamian civilization who were the first to emerge and the first to develop a written language. Lastly, but by no means least important, were the Olmec, whose civilization revolved around agriculture. The chapter mentioned that they built 17 stone heads which weighed over 20 tons each, an enormous feat for a civilization whose economy was based on agriculture. The importance of the agricultural revolution was evidenced in this chapter as none of these civilizations would have had the chance to grow without surplus created as a result of agriculture. The civilizations forming were an amazing accomplishment, but things did not stop there, as societies started forming, so too, came the problems that go with them. Gender discrimination, hierarchies of class, and the patriarchy that we can still see today started to form back even in the first of civilizations. A lot of times we wonder why there are so many problems in the world, but even the first civilizations had these problems, as they are a part of society. Gone with the Agricultural Revolution, equality left too as jobs needed more specialization and perhaps the more important ones required men to be done. These were just the start of problems that equality faced when people started forming cities and they are still very much apparent today. However,the problems did not start with our own society, we just failed to learn from past mistakes.
Chapter three was especially compelling as it is the first time we can see the society as we know it starting to form. For the first time there are actual states and governments with leaders who use force to get obedience. Personally, the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt were always the most interesting part of history as they provided the foundation for civilization today. It was also interesting how civilizations not only formed in one place, but 6 different places around the globe at around the same time, just like how agriculture happened. As civilization developed so did trade between peoples and also writing. Two things that generally did not happen before these 6 major civilizations suddenly appeared and became a major part of most of the societies as the literate people were often held in higher regard than those were illiterate; and trade made the possibility of getting materials a lot easier, it also helped the spread of culture. The Indus Valley civilization was interesting because they did not have a hierarchy like the other civilizations had. I think it takes a lot of intelligence to have a coordinated civilization with specialized jobs, and not have someone overseeing it all as a ruling figure. The most interesting civilizations, in my opinion, was the one in South America known as Norte Chico because, unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the other early civilizations, they did not have a form of writing. Nor did they trade much or even have wars as their cities did not have defensive structures. Most of these things were probably due to isolation, however, even isolated they were able to develop their own society, much different than the others but still functioning. Of course the more typical ancient civilizations are interesting too as Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China have done many significant things during their time. For example, the Chinese were able to create an irrigation system that left surplus all over the civilization, thus allowing them to expand and focus on advancing their civilization. Another example would be the hard work and ingenuity it took the Egyptians to build the pyramids which we still see today as a huge accomplishment. Of course there was also the Mesopotamian civilization who were the first to emerge and the first to develop a written language. Lastly, but by no means least important, were the Olmec, whose civilization revolved around agriculture. The chapter mentioned that they built 17 stone heads which weighed over 20 tons each, an enormous feat for a civilization whose economy was based on agriculture. The importance of the agricultural revolution was evidenced in this chapter as none of these civilizations would have had the chance to grow without surplus created as a result of agriculture. The civilizations forming were an amazing accomplishment, but things did not stop there, as societies started forming, so too, came the problems that go with them. Gender discrimination, hierarchies of class, and the patriarchy that we can still see today started to form back even in the first of civilizations. A lot of times we wonder why there are so many problems in the world, but even the first civilizations had these problems, as they are a part of society. Gone with the Agricultural Revolution, equality left too as jobs needed more specialization and perhaps the more important ones required men to be done. These were just the start of problems that equality faced when people started forming cities and they are still very much apparent today. However,the problems did not start with our own society, we just failed to learn from past mistakes.
Friday, September 14, 2012
Ways of the World Chapter 2: First Farmers
The agricultural revolution was a long time in coming and the occurrence of it was just as much luck as it was evolution and innovation. The combination of things like the ending of the Ice Age and globalization paved the way for farming to happen. Many of the large animals that thrived during the Ice Age were now becoming extinct due to a shift in climate. On the other hand, the domestication of other, smaller animals also greatly contributed to the further development of farming, and through natural selection, the animals better suited to human needs survived and reproduced. It's interesting how the book says that humans not only tamed the animals and settled them, but that the animals also, in a way, tamed humans, as they made gather-hunting obsolete and much more useless. However, this made domesticated animals and humans much more dependent upon each other since the animals were fed and raised by humans while the animals, in turn, fed the humans or were used for other things like wool or milk. Gathering and hunting became useless because people got more from farming than they did from from hunting. Because they got a lot more food, population also greatly increased as humans strove to settle and migrate all over the world. Population actually seemed to explode with the agricultural revolution going from 6 million to 250 million by the common era. Gone with gathering and hunting was the understanding the paleolithic people had of the natural world. It seems like the people of the neolithic era were more out of touch with the environment because they did not depend on it as much as they once did. I also found it interesting how the agricultural revolution happened generally around the same time period, which was between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago. This makes sense though, considering that the ending of the Ice Age brought with it the end of animals and plants that people used to rely on, thus creating the need to domesticate animals and start farming. The adaptation of crops over time was also very pertinent to the further advancement of civilizations, and it seems rather clever that peoples of the neolithic era were able to conquer such a feat. Diffusion and migration were also essential as they probably meant contact with other societies bringing trade and further growth which all seems much more advanced than I would have thought the people of the time were capable of. Although most places around the world developed farming around the same time, the environments in which they lived allowed each place to grow and develop separately, effectively creating different types of cultures all around the world. Perhaps the most interesting things was that farming not only led to domestication, population, and globalization, but also a lot of technological advancement. Technologies newly available or more essential included pots, textiles, weaving and newer tools. One of the only negative things that developed, in my opinion, was the rise of inequality through chiefdoms, however, even these were not so bad as they were based off of giving, not of force which is probably how it should be. Overall, the peoples of the neolithic era provided a strong foundation for society today through agriculture and although these people lived thousands of years ago, it is easy to see that their ways of life definitely influenced how we are today.
The agricultural revolution was a long time in coming and the occurrence of it was just as much luck as it was evolution and innovation. The combination of things like the ending of the Ice Age and globalization paved the way for farming to happen. Many of the large animals that thrived during the Ice Age were now becoming extinct due to a shift in climate. On the other hand, the domestication of other, smaller animals also greatly contributed to the further development of farming, and through natural selection, the animals better suited to human needs survived and reproduced. It's interesting how the book says that humans not only tamed the animals and settled them, but that the animals also, in a way, tamed humans, as they made gather-hunting obsolete and much more useless. However, this made domesticated animals and humans much more dependent upon each other since the animals were fed and raised by humans while the animals, in turn, fed the humans or were used for other things like wool or milk. Gathering and hunting became useless because people got more from farming than they did from from hunting. Because they got a lot more food, population also greatly increased as humans strove to settle and migrate all over the world. Population actually seemed to explode with the agricultural revolution going from 6 million to 250 million by the common era. Gone with gathering and hunting was the understanding the paleolithic people had of the natural world. It seems like the people of the neolithic era were more out of touch with the environment because they did not depend on it as much as they once did. I also found it interesting how the agricultural revolution happened generally around the same time period, which was between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago. This makes sense though, considering that the ending of the Ice Age brought with it the end of animals and plants that people used to rely on, thus creating the need to domesticate animals and start farming. The adaptation of crops over time was also very pertinent to the further advancement of civilizations, and it seems rather clever that peoples of the neolithic era were able to conquer such a feat. Diffusion and migration were also essential as they probably meant contact with other societies bringing trade and further growth which all seems much more advanced than I would have thought the people of the time were capable of. Although most places around the world developed farming around the same time, the environments in which they lived allowed each place to grow and develop separately, effectively creating different types of cultures all around the world. Perhaps the most interesting things was that farming not only led to domestication, population, and globalization, but also a lot of technological advancement. Technologies newly available or more essential included pots, textiles, weaving and newer tools. One of the only negative things that developed, in my opinion, was the rise of inequality through chiefdoms, however, even these were not so bad as they were based off of giving, not of force which is probably how it should be. Overall, the peoples of the neolithic era provided a strong foundation for society today through agriculture and although these people lived thousands of years ago, it is easy to see that their ways of life definitely influenced how we are today.
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